Some further thoughts: the most striking results I know of on "purely algebraic cyclic/Hochschild homology" are due to Wodzicki, see e.g.
Homological properties of rings of functional-analytic type, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA 87 (1990), 4910-4911
which states that stable C*-algebras have trivial cyclic homology. Obviously this doesn't answer your II_1 factor question...
Also: your remark that in some cases, we can ignore the analysis and make the situation a bit simpler confuses me a little. To get anywhere with cyclic or Hochschild homology, we need to do some kind of comparison of resolutions, or construction of contracting homotopies, or something like that. My intuition - but I don't work much on operator algebras, so I could well be wrong here - is that a von Neumann algebra is such a big object we usually can only get a handle on it by looking at suitable subsets which generate its unit ball in the WOT/SOT. So for group von Neumann algebras, one tries to see what's going on for translations, and thence to deduce more general results by exploiting w*-w* continuity; or else use projections and approximation arguments. If we go to a purely algebraic category, then it is no longer sufficient to define things on dense subsets - one really needs a global definition, one really needs to verify that certain putative identities are satisfied by each element of the von Neumann algebra.
Sorry if that's a bit waffly. I think my point is that imposing continuity restrictions actually makes things easier, because - intuitively - more things are going to be projective/injective/flat relative to one's restricted class of short exact sequences. This is why, for instance, we know that for any von Neumann algebra M, but why the analogous claim without the 'cb' is open and back-breaking. In a similar vein, if you work in a restricted category then one does indeed get some known instances of homological non-triviality (though at the level of modules, not at the level of cyclic homology):
M. E. Polyakov, An Example of a Spatially Nonflat von Neumann Algebra
I should also say that the Hilbert module stuff you mention doesn't really connect to your original question about cyclic (co)homology. It's interesting, and I think more has been done, but it's just different - so if that's what interests you, cyclic and Hochschild homology may be something of a distraction.
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