I agree with @Andrew Leach's observation; by using the word "rank" you are setting the consideration of the sentence to one rank at a time, so the verb form should be singular despite its adjacency to the plural "theologians".
Others will disagree, and say that the verb should agree with "theologians", or that "X upon X" is implicitly plural. Either way, some significant portion of the reading population may find the sentence a bit jarring.
To make the agreement easier, you could change to
Ranks upon ranks of theologians have envisioned ...
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